Table of Contents

Preface xii

1 Constructing Our Public Philosophies 1

Public Philosophies and Political Ideologies 1

Political Theory 3

Searching for an Underlying Consensus Within Pluralism 13

Ideas Beyond the Underlying Consensus of Pluralism 15

Conclusions 20

Part I Participants in our Political Conversations 23

2 Voices from the Major Ideologies of the Nineteenth Century 27

Classical Liberalism: Building Democratic Capitalism 27

Traditional Conservatism: Defending the Old Social Order 31

Anarchism: Rebelling Against Authority 37

Marxism: Pursuing a Classless Society 39

Conclusions 42

3 Prominent Totalitarian and Pluralist Voices of the Twentieth Century 46

Communism: Fighting Imperialism in Developing Societies 47

Fascism and Nazism: Totalitarian Control to Strengthen the Collective 52

Contemporary Liberalism: Reforming Capitalism and Democracy 56

Contemporary Conservatism: Opposing Liberal and Socialist Programs 63

Conclusions 70

4 Radical and Extreme Voices in Contemporary Politics 74

The Radical Left: Seeking More Egalitarian and Communal Societies 77

The Radical Right: Seeking More Economic Freedom or Moral Consensus 85

The Extreme Right: Returning to More Homogeneous Societies 91

The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Global Neoliberalism 93

Conclusions 96

Part II Philosophical Assumptions: Their Importance as Foundations for Political Principles 101

5 Questions of Ontology 107

Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing the “Great Chain of Being” 109

Classical Liberals: Deism, Naturalism, and Materialism 110

Anarchists: Natural Interconnections, Ideas, and Conflicts 111

Marxists: Economic Determinism 113

Communists: Revising Dialectical Materialism 117

Fascists and Nazis: Heroic Will and Racial Struggle 119

Contemporary Liberals: Deemphasizing Ontology and Embracing Contingency 121

Contemporary Conservatives: Appreciating the World As It Is 123

The Radical Right: Refuting Charges of Economic and Divine Determination 124

The Extreme Right: Expecting a Divine Apocalypse 126

The Radical Left: Tempering Material Forces with Socialist Ideals 127

The Extreme Left: Releasing Human Imagination, Constrained by Ecological Limits 128

Conclusions 130

6 Questions of Human Nature 133

Classical Liberals: Humans as Equal and Rational Pursuers of Happiness 135

Traditional Conservatives: Defining Humans by their Places in Society 137

Anarchists: Seeing Human Altruism as Hindered by Conventional Institutions 138

Marxists: Conceiving Humans as Creative Laborers 139

Communists: Creating a “New Man” 141

Fascists and Nazis: Energizing the Will of “the Herd” 142

Contemporary Liberals: Fostering Autonomy, Reason, and Moral Development 143

The Radical Left: Stressing our Common Humanity and Individual Differences 145

Contemporary Conservatives: Accepting Human Imperfection 147

The Radical Right: Embedding Humans in Moral Communities and/or Free Markets 149

The Extreme Right: Regarding Humans as either Good or Evil 151

The Extreme Left: Rejecting an Essential Human Nature 152

Conclusions 153

7 Questions of Society 155

Classical Liberals: Individuals Seeking Mutual Benefits Through a Social Contract 156

Traditional Conservatives: Organic Societies that Come Before Individuals 158

Anarchists: Natural Societies Built on Friendship 160

Marxists: Transforming Class-Based Societies into Classless Ones 161

Communists: Non-Proletarian Contributions to a Classless Society 163

Fascists and Nazis: Defining Society in Nationalist and Racist Terms 164

Contemporary Liberals: Promoting Social Pluralism 165

Contemporary Conservatives: Seeing Society as a Delicate Watch 166

The Radical Right: Holding either Communitarian or Libertarian Visions of Society 168

The Radical Left: Searching for More Communal and Egalitarian Societies 168

The Extreme Right: Seeking Homogeneous Societies 170

The Extreme Left: Longing for Societies of “Singularities Pursuing the Common” 171

Conclusions 172

8 Questions of Epistemology 175

Classical Liberals: Moving from Natural Rights to Utilitarianism 177

Traditional Conservatives: Doubting Reason, Stressing Conventional Wisdom 180

Anarchists: Depending on a Vision of Human and Social Possibility 182

Marxists: A Science Showing the Inevitability, not the Goodness, of Communism 183

Communists: Generating Truths from Authoritative Readings of Marx 185

Fascists and Nazis: Finding Absolute Truth in the Intuitions of a Political Leader 186

Contemporary Liberals: Emphasizing Pragmatism 187

Contemporary Conservatives: Using a Social Science of Political Failure 190

The Radical Right: Finding Meaning in Tradition and Truth through Science 192

The Radical Left: Emphasizing Political Rationality 194

The Extreme Right: Finding Truth in Authoritative Texts and Leaders 197

The Extreme Left: Contesting and Deconstructing all Truths 198

Conclusions 199

Part III The Great Issues of Politics: Consensual and Contested Principles 203

9 Questions of Community 207

Classical Liberals: Presupposing the Primacy of Nations 208

Traditional Conservatives: Patriots Lacking Nationalist Fervor 210

Anarchists: Rejecting Conventional Communities While Seeking Natural Ones 212

Marxists: Identifying with the Working Class and Eventually Humanity 213

Communists: Fighting Imperialism Through Nationalist Appeals 214

Fascists and Nazis: Embracing a Unified Nation and an Aryan State 215

Contemporary Liberals: Nations Built on Individual and Group Differences 216

Contemporary Conservatives: Seeking Moral, but not Communitarian, Countries 218

The Radical Right: Competing Global, National, and Sub-National Loyalties 220

The Radical Left: Pursuing Solidarity Among Diverse People in Many Polities 223

The Extreme Right: Rejecting Multiple Community Identities 225

The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Current Identities 226

Conclusions 228

10 Questions of Citizenship 232

Classical Liberals: Curbing Citizenship, Providing Limited Rights and Obligations 233

Traditional Conservatives: Stressing Loyalty and Obedience to Authorities 235

Anarchists: Comrades Without Political Obligations 237

Marxists: Transforming Alienated Workers into Public-Spirited Comrades 238

Communists: Transforming Oppressed People into Obedient Revolutionaries 239

Fascists and Nazis: Mobilizing Dutiful Citizens for Purposes of State 240

Contemporary Liberals: Pursuing Inclusion and Expanding Rights 241

Contemporary Conservatives: Developing More Responsible Citizens 245

The Radical Right: Privileging Property Rights and Instilling Virtue 248

The Radical Left: Embracing Multiple and Deep Citizenships 250

The Extreme Right: Restricting Citizenship 254

The Extreme Left: Changing Passive Citizens into Contentious Ones 255

Conclusions 256

11 Questions of Structure 260

Classical Liberals: Designing Free Markets and Representative Democracies 261

Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing Civil Society and Cultural Norms 264

Anarchists: Rejecting All Conventional Structures 266

Marxists: Stressing the Oppression of Capitalism 268

Communists: Emphasizing Party Organizations 269

Fascists and Nazis: Empowering Totalitarian States 271

Contemporary Liberals: Balancing and Integrating Government and Capitalism 272

Contemporary Conservatives: Reining in Strong States 276

The Radical Right: More Freedom in The Marketplace and Less Cultural Freedom 277

The Radical Left: Pursuing Market Socialism and Democratic Cultures 280

The Extreme Right: Seeking Theocracies 283

The Extreme Left: Fighting Globalization and Other Forms of Domination 285

Conclusions 286

12 Questions of Rulers 289

Classical Liberals: Empowering Representatives While Holding Them Accountable 290

Traditional Conservatives: Finding a Place for Elitism Within Democracy 292

Anarchists: Rejecting All Rulers 293

Marxists: The Need for a Temporary Dictatorship of the Proletariat 293

Communists: The Need for a Vanguard of the Proletariat 295

Fascists and Nazis: Concentrating Power in the Hands of a Single Ruler 296

Contemporary Liberals: More Representative and Responsive Democracies 297

The Radical Left: More Inclusive and Participatory Democracies 300

Contemporary Conservatives: More Formal Representative Democracy 302

The Radical Right: Democracy as Freedom 304

The Extreme Right: Imagining Conspiracies 307

The Extreme Left: Seeing Formidable Obstacles to Radical and Global Democracy 308

Conclusions 310

13 Questions of Authority 314

Classical Liberals: Authorizing Limited Governments that Secure (Property) Rights 316

Traditional Conservatives: Orchestrating Social Harmony 318

Anarchists: Rejecting All Governmental Authority 320

Marxists: Authority As Oppressive, Then Necessary, and Finally Eliminated 322

Communists: Justifying Massive Authority as a Means to Abolish the State 322

Fascists and Nazis: Embracing Totalitarian State Authority 324

Contemporary Liberalism: From Limited Government to a Strong State 326

Contemporary Conservatives: Limiting the Activity of Governments 329

The Radical Right: Starving Government While Imposing Social Regulations 331

The Radical Left: Enhancing the Public Sphere 334

The Extreme Right: Resisting Authority that Disregards Sacred Texts 339

The Extreme Left: Contesting Governmental Authority 340

Conclusions 341

14 Questions of Justice 343

Classical Liberals: Equal Dignity but Unequal Rewards 345

Traditional Conservatives: Unequal Rights but Commensurate Responsibilities 347

Anarchists: Right Conduct in the Absence of Just Institutions 350

Marxists: Transcending the Circumstances of Justice 352

Communists: Using Social Control to Build a Society in which All Needs are Met 354

Fascists and Nazis: National or Racial Dominance as More Important than Justice 355

Contemporary Liberals: Compensating for Undeserved Disadvantages 355

The Radical Left: Pursuing a More Egalitarian Society 359

Contemporary Conservatives: Criticizing Social Justice, Emphasizing Compassion 366

The Radical Right: Focusing on Fair Procedures and the Pursuit of the Common Good 369

The Extreme Right: Regarding Moral Goodness as the Basis of Just Outcomes 372

The Extreme Left: Decrying Global Injustice while Striving to Share “the Common” 373

Conclusions 375

15 Questions of Change 377

Classical Liberals: Seeking Economic, Intellectual, and Moral Progress 378

Traditional Conservatives: Slowing the Winds of Change 381

Marxists: Predicting Revolution From Below 382

Anarchists: Calling for Rebellion rather than Revolution 384

Communists: Generating Revolutions While Deviating From Marxist Orthodoxy 386

Fascists and Nazis: Revolutionary Change Toward Certain Conservative Values 389

Contemporary Liberals: Achieving Fundamental Change Incrementally 390

Contemporary Conservatives: Pursuing Reforms – of “Failed” Liberal Programs 392

The Radical Right: Seeking Major Changes, even if they Enhance Inequalities 393

The Extreme Right: Returning to a Past of Greater Moral Certainty 396

The Radical Left: Evolutionary Change Toward More Democratic Equality 397

The Extreme Left: Wholesale and Ongoing Change – Without Revolutions 399

Conclusions 403

Notes 406

References 442

Index 458

About the Author

Paul Schumaker is Professor of Political Science at the University of Kansas, where he has taught courses in political theory and community politics since 1972. Dr. Schumaker has authored several books on political theory, including Critical Pluralism, Democratic Performance, and Community Power (1991).

Reviews

"The strengths of this work are many. Schumaker's schematic analysis of political ideas is thorough but never pedantic, and he illustrates his analysis with frequent and compelling examples. The result is a thoughtfully written text which will invite students into an interconnected dialogue about their most basic political beliefs. Students whose first exposure to political ideologies and philosophies comes through Schumaker's book will appreciate better not only their own opinions, but will have a better grasp of the advantages and limitations of a pluralistic system like our own, which allows other people's opinions to flourish as well."
Russell Arben Fox, Friends University